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Image: PressBooks |
The process for developing a research question There are many ways of framing questions depending on the topic, discipline, or type of questions. Several frameworks are listed in the table below. Source: Foster, M. & Jewell, S. (Eds). (2017). Assembling the pieces of a systematic review: Guide for librarians. Medical Library Association, Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 38, Table 3.3. |
Frameworks for research questions
| Framework | Stands for | Source | Discipline/type of question |
| BeHEMoTh | Be: behavior of interest H: health contest (service/policy/intervention) E: exclusions MoTh: models or theories |
Booth, A., & Carroll, C. (2015). Systematic searching for theory to inform systematic reviews: Is it feasible? Is it desirable? Health Information and Libraries Journal, 32(3), 220–235. https://doi.org/10.1111/hir.12108 |
Questions about theories |
| CHIP | Context How Issues Population |
Shaw, R. (2010). Conducting literature reviews. In M. A. Forester (Ed.), Doing Qualitative Research in Psychology: A Practical Guide (pp. 39-52). London, Sage. |
Psychology, qualitative |
| CIMO | Context Intervention Mechanisms Outcomes |
Denyer, D., & Tranfield, D. (2009). Producing a systematic review. In D. A. Buchanan & A. Bryman (Eds.), The Sage handbook of organizational research methods (pp. 671-689). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd.
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Management, business, administration |
| CLIP | Client group Location of provided service Improvement/Information/Innovation Professionals (who provides the service?) |
Wildridge, V., & Bell, L. (2002). How CLIP became ECLIPSE: A mnemonic to assist in searching for health policy/management information. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 19(2), 113–115. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-1842.2002.00378.x |
Librarianship, management, policy |
| COPES | Client-Oriented Practical Evidence Search |
Gibbs, L. (2003). Evidence-based practice for the helping professions: A practical guide with integrated multimedia. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole-Thomson Learning. | Social work, health care, nursing |
| ECLIPSE | Expectation Client Location Impact Professionals Service |
Wildridge, V., & Bell, L. (2002). How CLIP became ECLIPSE: A mnemonic to assist in searching for health policy/management information. Health Information & Libraries Journal, 19(2), 113–115. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1471-1842.2002.00378.x | Management, services, policy, social care |
| PEO | Population Exposure Outcome |
Khan, K. S., Kunz, R., Kleijnen, J., & Antes, G. (2003). Systematic reviews to support evidence-based medicine: How to review and apply findings of healthcare research. London: Royal Society of Medicine Press. | Qualitative |
| PECODR | Patient/population/problem Exposure Comparison Outcome Duration Results |
Dawes, M., Pluye, P., Shea, L., Grad, R., Greenberg, A., & Nie, J.-Y. (2007). The identification of clinically important elements within medical journal abstracts: Patient_Population_Problem, Exposure_Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Duration and Results (PECODR). Journal of Innovation in Health Informatics, 15(1), 9–16. |
Medicine |
| PESICO | Person Environments Stakeholders Intervention Comparison Outcome |
Schlosser, R. W., & O'Neil-Pirozzi, T. (2006). Problem formulation in evidence-based practice and systematic reviews. Contemporary Issues in Communication Sciences and Disorders, 33, 5-10. | Augmentative and alternative communication |
| PICO | Patient Intervention Comparison Outcome |
Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: A key to evidence-based decisions. ACP journal club, 123(3), A12-A12. | Clinical medicine |
| PICO+ |
Patient +context, patient values, and preferences |
Bennett, S., & Bennett, J. W. (2000). The process of evidence‐based practice in occupational therapy: Informing clinical decisions. Australian Occupational Therapy Journal, 47(4), 171-180. | Occupational therapy |
| PICOC |
Patient Context |
Petticrew, M., & Roberts, H. (2006). Systematic reviews in the social sciences: A practical guide. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. | Social Sciences |
| PICOS |
Patient Study Type |
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & Prisma Group. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS medicine, 6(7), e1000097. | Medicine |
| PICOT |
Patient Time |
Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: A key to evidence-based decisions. ACP journal club, 123(3), A12-A12. | Education, health care |
| PICO specific to diagnostic tests | Patient/participants/population Index tests Comparator/reference tests Outcome |
Kim, K. W., Lee, J., Choi, S. H., Huh, J., & Park, S. H. (2015). Systematic review and meta-analysis of studies evaluating diagnostic test accuracy: A practical review for clinical researchers - Part I. General guidance and tips. Korean Journal of Radiology, 16(6), 1175-1187. | Diagnostic questions |
| PIPOH | Population Intervention Professionals Outcomes Health care setting/context |
ADAPTE Collaboration. (2009). The ADAPTE Process: Resource Toolkit for guideline adaptation. Version 2.0. Available from http://www.g-i-n.net | Screening |
| ProPheT | Problem Phenomenon of interest Time |
Booth, A., Noyes, J., Flemming, K., Gerhardus, A., Wahlster, P., van der Wilt, G. J., ... & Rehfuess, E. (2016). Guidance on choosing qualitative evidence synthesis methods for use in health technology assessments of complex interventions. [Technical Report]. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2318.0562 ----- Booth, A., Sutton, A., & Papaioannou, D. (2016). Systematic approaches to a successful literature review (2. ed.). London: Sage. |
Social sciences, qualitative, library science |
| SPICE | Setting Perspective Interest Comparison Evaluation |
Booth, A. (2006). Clear and present questions: formulating questions for evidence based practice. Library Hi Tech, 24(3), 355-368. | Library and information sciences |
| SPIDER | Sample Phenomenon of interest Design Evaluation Research type |
Cooke, A., Smith, D., & Booth, A. (2012). Beyond PICO: The SPIDER tool for qualitative evidence synthesis. Qualitative health research, 22(10), 1435-1443. | Health, qualitative research |
| WWH | Who What How |
What was done? (intervention, exposure, policy, phenomenon) How does the what affect the who? |
Further reading:
Methley, A. M., Campbell, S., Chew-Graham, C., McNally, R., & Cheraghi-Sohi, S. (2014). PICO, PICOS and SPIDER: A comparison study of specificity and sensitivity in three search tools for qualitative systematic reviews. BMC Health Services Research, 14(1), 579.
